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The connection between Scotland and Canada goes back more than 300 years to the 17th century. Scotland established one of the earliest colonies in Canada when Sir William Alexander was granted a charter for Nova Scotia in 1621. Alexander established small settlements on Cape Breton and on the Bay of Fundy, but they did not flourish and Scottish claims were surrendered to France in 1632. A few Scots immigrated to New France, but the major early movement of Scots to Canada was circa 1720, when a small number of men from Orkney were recruited by the Hudson's Bay Company for service in the West. Not much later, soldiers from the Highlands of Scotland came to North America to serve in the regiments of the British army that defeated the French in the Seven Years' War. The lack of opportunity in Scotland is what drove them out. That's why Tom Radford's family came. They were farmers forced from their land by the English invasion of 1746. In the colonies of British North America, the men were conscripted into the armies of England to defend an empire not their own. The Scots were renowned as fighting men: the Black Watch, the Scottish Greys, with their pipers leading them into battle. When the English defeated the French, Scottish soldiers received land grants in the new world. They couldn't go home because their farms in Scotland had been confiscated during the Highland Clearances.
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After 1815, Scottish immigration increased in numbers but the pattern changed somewhat. Scots from the Lowlands area were encouraged by the British government to join the Highlanders in coming to Canada. Some 170,000 Scots crossed the Atlantic between 1815 and 1870, roughly fourteen percent of the total British migration of this period. By the 1850s most of the newcomers were settling in the Province of Canada rather than the Maritime colonies. According to the 1871 census, 157 of every 1,000 Canadians were of Scottish origin.
The immigrants of this period represented a cross-section of the Scottish population. Most were farmers and artisans, although large numbers of business and professional people were included, especially teachers and clergymen. Most of the newcomers were Presbyterians and most spoke English. The flow of people from Scotland to Canada continued well into the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. From 1871 to 1901, 80,000 Scots entered Canada seeking a better future: 340,00 arrived in the first years of the century before WWI, 200,000 more between 1919 and 1930 and another 147,000 between 1946 and 1960(6).
Excerpts from: A Land As Green As the Sea, by Tom Radford. http://www.whitepinepictures.com/seeds/i/13/history1.html The 1998 Canadian & World Encyclopedia (McClelland & Stewart, Toronto
Ninian's church of Whithorn is dedicated to St Martin.
Ninian's church of Whithorn is dedicated to St Martin.
The first attempts to entice Scottish settlers to Canada began as early as 1622, when Sir William Alexander obtained permission from King James I to establish new Scotland or Nova Scotia. Unfortunately, his colonization efforts failed, and only a small number of Scottish families settled in Canada prior to the conquest of New France in 1759. Those who did make a home on Canadian soil were mainly Roman Catholic Highlanders who sought political and religious asylum following the failed Jacobite uprisings in Scotland in 1715 and 1745.
Those immigrants who arrived after 1759 were Highland farmers who had been forced off their rented land or "crofts" to make way for sheep grazing. Most of these Scots settled in what is now Atlantic Canada. In 1772 a wave of Scottish immigrants began to arrive in Prince Edward Island and one year later in Pictou, Nova Scotia. At the end of the 18th century Cape Breton Island became a centre of Scottish settlement where only Gaelic was spoken. A handful of English-speaking Scottish Lowlanders, mainly laborers and artisans, also joined the Scottish exodus to Canada at this time. Likewise, a number of Scottish United Empire Loyalists who had fled the United States in 1783 arrived in Glengarry (eastern Ontario) and Nova Scotia. In 1803 Lord Selkirk, who was sympathetic to the plight of the dispossessed crofters, brought 800 colonists to Prince Edward Island. In 1812 Selkirk founded the Red River settlement in what is now Manitoba, where he also settled Highlander and Irish immigrants.
The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 was followed by an economic depression in Europe that caused many Scots to leave their homeland. Some settled in the eastern townships of Lower Canada, while others were directed to Upper Canada to discourage further American settlement in the area. By the 1820s both Lowland and Highland Scot were arriving in Canada in large numbers. Continuing unemployment in their homeland, in addition to the lure of cash and land grants offered in Canada, led to a fairly steady stream of Scottish immigration throughout the remainder of the 19th century. By 1871 the Scottish population in the four original provinces of Canada reached 549,946.
The 20th century also witnessed high levels of Scottish immigration, which peaked between 1910-1911 when over 62,000 Scots arrived in Canada. By 1931, the Scottish population was 1,346,350 and is today there are upwards of 4 million Canadians who claim Scottish heritage.
Since they first arrived on Canada's eastern coast, the Scots have played an influential role in Canadian commerce, politics and industry. Many were attracted to Canada by the political freedoms life in the colony afforded, and took the opportunity to become politically active. Others tapped the West's resources as fur traders and explorers, establishing forts and trading posts that formed the anchors for permanent settlement. Many Scottish names are found during a role call of Canada's earliest adventurers: in 1795, Alexander MacKenzie reached the Pacific Ocean via an overland route; and in 1808 Simon Fraser followed the treacherous river that now bears his name to the Pacific Ocean. Scottish fur traders and their families were among the first to settle Lower Fort Garry (Winnipeg), Fort Pelly (Saskatchewan), Fort Victoria (Pakan, Alberta) and Edmonton. At the latter settlement, tough young Highlanders were instrumental in the establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company's Edmonton House in 1795.
A number of Scots gained distinction in the Northwest Mounted Police, which was formed in 1873 to bring law and order to the West. A famous Scot in the force was Colonel James McLeod, whose accomplishments include the founding of Fort McLeod and Calgary. In addition, prominent Scottish-Canadian politicians include William Lyon MacKenzie, who led the rebellion of 1837 that ultimately resulted in the granting of responsible government to Canada in 1841. Sir John A. Macdonald, probably Canada's most illustrious Scot was a key figure in bringing about Confederation and was the country's first Prime Minister. In Alberta, Alexander Rutherford, an Ontario-born Scot, was the province's first Premier in 1905.
Scots have traditionally place high value on education. In Canada, Scots founded Dalhousie University, McGill University, the University of Toronto, Queen's University, St. Francis Xavier and the University of New Brunswick. The Scottish contribution to Canadian arts and letters has likewise been remarkable. Luminaries in this field include Hugh MacLennan, Marshall McLuhan and Robert W. Service.
Scottish-Canadians have maintained close links with the past, promoting and preserving their history and their heritage. Clan societies, country dancing and highland dancing are important cultural traditions, and Gaelic is still taught as a language option in Nova Scotia schools. No concrete numbers are available, but at least one source states that there are between 500-1000 native Gaelic speakers on Cape Breton Island as of July 2002. In addition, pipe bands and traditional Scottish sports such as golf and curling remain popular pastimes across the country. The Edmonton Scottish Soccer Club, for instance, holds regular tournaments and events and the Calgary United Scottish Games Association sponsors the Calgary Highland Games every summer. Other highland games take place throughout the province of Alberta in the summer months. The Alberta Highland Dancing Association has chapters in Edmonton, Calgary, Lethbridge and Red Deer. Scottish Imports Inc (known affectionately by Edmontonians as the "Scottish store") provides a number of links, products and services tailored to meet the needs of the city's Scottish population. The Edmonton Scottish Society also sponsors a number of events in the city throughout the year, including Robbie Burns’s dinners and celebrations on Tartan Day (April 5th), which celebrates Scottish independence and the Scottish presence in Canada.
Today, nearly 560,000 Albertans can trace their ancestry back to Scotland, evidence that the Scottish influence on the province has been vast. Scots in Alberta have made their mark in virtually every realm of public and private life.
Those immigrants who arrived after 1759 were Highland farmers who had been forced off their rented land or "crofts" to make way for sheep grazing. Most of these Scots settled in what is now Atlantic Canada. In 1772 a wave of Scottish immigrants began to arrive in Prince Edward Island and one year later in Pictou, Nova Scotia. At the end of the 18th century Cape Breton Island became a centre of Scottish settlement where only Gaelic was spoken. A handful of English-speaking Scottish Lowlanders, mainly laborers and artisans, also joined the Scottish exodus to Canada at this time. Likewise, a number of Scottish United Empire Loyalists who had fled the United States in 1783 arrived in Glengarry (eastern Ontario) and Nova Scotia. In 1803 Lord Selkirk, who was sympathetic to the plight of the dispossessed crofters, brought 800 colonists to Prince Edward Island. In 1812 Selkirk founded the Red River settlement in what is now Manitoba, where he also settled Highlander and Irish immigrants.
The end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 was followed by an economic depression in Europe that caused many Scots to leave their homeland. Some settled in the eastern townships of Lower Canada, while others were directed to Upper Canada to discourage further American settlement in the area. By the 1820s both Lowland and Highland Scot were arriving in Canada in large numbers. Continuing unemployment in their homeland, in addition to the lure of cash and land grants offered in Canada, led to a fairly steady stream of Scottish immigration throughout the remainder of the 19th century. By 1871 the Scottish population in the four original provinces of Canada reached 549,946.
The 20th century also witnessed high levels of Scottish immigration, which peaked between 1910-1911 when over 62,000 Scots arrived in Canada. By 1931, the Scottish population was 1,346,350 and is today there are upwards of 4 million Canadians who claim Scottish heritage.
Since they first arrived on Canada's eastern coast, the Scots have played an influential role in Canadian commerce, politics and industry. Many were attracted to Canada by the political freedoms life in the colony afforded, and took the opportunity to become politically active. Others tapped the West's resources as fur traders and explorers, establishing forts and trading posts that formed the anchors for permanent settlement. Many Scottish names are found during a role call of Canada's earliest adventurers: in 1795, Alexander MacKenzie reached the Pacific Ocean via an overland route; and in 1808 Simon Fraser followed the treacherous river that now bears his name to the Pacific Ocean. Scottish fur traders and their families were among the first to settle Lower Fort Garry (Winnipeg), Fort Pelly (Saskatchewan), Fort Victoria (Pakan, Alberta) and Edmonton. At the latter settlement, tough young Highlanders were instrumental in the establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company's Edmonton House in 1795.
A number of Scots gained distinction in the Northwest Mounted Police, which was formed in 1873 to bring law and order to the West. A famous Scot in the force was Colonel James McLeod, whose accomplishments include the founding of Fort McLeod and Calgary. In addition, prominent Scottish-Canadian politicians include William Lyon MacKenzie, who led the rebellion of 1837 that ultimately resulted in the granting of responsible government to Canada in 1841. Sir John A. Macdonald, probably Canada's most illustrious Scot was a key figure in bringing about Confederation and was the country's first Prime Minister. In Alberta, Alexander Rutherford, an Ontario-born Scot, was the province's first Premier in 1905.
Scots have traditionally place high value on education. In Canada, Scots founded Dalhousie University, McGill University, the University of Toronto, Queen's University, St. Francis Xavier and the University of New Brunswick. The Scottish contribution to Canadian arts and letters has likewise been remarkable. Luminaries in this field include Hugh MacLennan, Marshall McLuhan and Robert W. Service.
Scottish-Canadians have maintained close links with the past, promoting and preserving their history and their heritage. Clan societies, country dancing and highland dancing are important cultural traditions, and Gaelic is still taught as a language option in Nova Scotia schools. No concrete numbers are available, but at least one source states that there are between 500-1000 native Gaelic speakers on Cape Breton Island as of July 2002. In addition, pipe bands and traditional Scottish sports such as golf and curling remain popular pastimes across the country. The Edmonton Scottish Soccer Club, for instance, holds regular tournaments and events and the Calgary United Scottish Games Association sponsors the Calgary Highland Games every summer. Other highland games take place throughout the province of Alberta in the summer months. The Alberta Highland Dancing Association has chapters in Edmonton, Calgary, Lethbridge and Red Deer. Scottish Imports Inc (known affectionately by Edmontonians as the "Scottish store") provides a number of links, products and services tailored to meet the needs of the city's Scottish population. The Edmonton Scottish Society also sponsors a number of events in the city throughout the year, including Robbie Burns’s dinners and celebrations on Tartan Day (April 5th), which celebrates Scottish independence and the Scottish presence in Canada.
Today, nearly 560,000 Albertans can trace their ancestry back to Scotland, evidence that the Scottish influence on the province has been vast. Scots in Alberta have made their mark in virtually every realm of public and private life.
Between 1770 and 1815 some 15,000 Highland Scots came to Canada, settling mainly in Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and Quebec. Most of these immigrants came from the western Highlands and the islands of Scotland. They were almost exclusively Gaelic speaking and many were Roman Catholics. They congregated in agrarian communities in the new land. In the early years of the 19th century, Gaelic was the third most common European language spoken in Canada. A few Highlanders were brought to the Red River Colony by the earl of Selkirk, and other Scots from the fur trade moved with their Indian families to Red River after 1821.
Irish Immigration to Canada:
The Irish have a long and rich history in Canada dating back centuries. The first recorded Irish presence in the area of present day Canada dates from 1536, when Irish fishermen from Cork travelled to Newfoundland.
The first significant group of Canadian settlers from Ireland were Protestants from predominantly Ulster and largely of Scottish descent who settled in central Nova Scotia in the 1760s. Many came through the efforts of colonizer Alexander McNutt. Some came directly from Ulster, whilst others arrived via New England.
After permanent settlement of Newfoundland by Irish in early 1800s, overwhelmingly from Waterford, increased immigration of the Irish elsewhere in Canada began in the decades following the War of 1812. Between the years 1825 to 1845, 60% of all immigrants to Canada were Irish; in 1831 alone, some 34,000 arrived in Montréal.
But the peak period of entry of the Irish to Canada occurred during and shortly after the Irish potato famine in the mid 19th century. During this time, Canada was the destination of the most destitute Irish people, numbering in the hundreds of thousands. This was because the fare to Canada was much lower than those to the United Statesr the United States.1
Compared with the Irish in the United States or the United Kingdom who fled famine, a good number of the Irish in Canada settled in rural areas and not in the cities, though there were many exceptions (especially in Quebec and New Brunswick, see below for more information). The Irish in Canada still faced a large amount of racism and persecution, both from the Irish Republican Brotherhood's raids on British army posts in Canada (then known as British North America) from the United States, and due to long-standing feelings of anti-Irish racism among Canadian Protestants. Although the Irish-Canadian community did in part condemned the attacks on the British Army in Canada in support of their hopes for a peaceful new country, many more were torn between loyalty to their new home and the memory of harsh British rule in Ireland.
The first significant group of Canadian settlers from Ireland were Protestants from predominantly Ulster and largely of Scottish descent who settled in central Nova Scotia in the 1760s. Many came through the efforts of colonizer Alexander McNutt. Some came directly from Ulster, whilst others arrived via New England.
After permanent settlement of Newfoundland by Irish in early 1800s, overwhelmingly from Waterford, increased immigration of the Irish elsewhere in Canada began in the decades following the War of 1812. Between the years 1825 to 1845, 60% of all immigrants to Canada were Irish; in 1831 alone, some 34,000 arrived in Montréal.
But the peak period of entry of the Irish to Canada occurred during and shortly after the Irish potato famine in the mid 19th century. During this time, Canada was the destination of the most destitute Irish people, numbering in the hundreds of thousands. This was because the fare to Canada was much lower than those to the United Statesr the United States.1
Compared with the Irish in the United States or the United Kingdom who fled famine, a good number of the Irish in Canada settled in rural areas and not in the cities, though there were many exceptions (especially in Quebec and New Brunswick, see below for more information). The Irish in Canada still faced a large amount of racism and persecution, both from the Irish Republican Brotherhood's raids on British army posts in Canada (then known as British North America) from the United States, and due to long-standing feelings of anti-Irish racism among Canadian Protestants. Although the Irish-Canadian community did in part condemned the attacks on the British Army in Canada in support of their hopes for a peaceful new country, many more were torn between loyalty to their new home and the memory of harsh British rule in Ireland.
Between 1820 and 1860, the Irish were never less than a third of all immigrants. The British Passenger Acts attempted to deflect the immigration from the British Isles to Canada instead of the U.S., making the fare a cheap 15 shilling compared to the 4 or 5 pound fare to New York. Many Irish soon found it convenient to take the affordable trip to Canada, where they could buy cheap fares to the U.S., or cheaper yet, they could walk across the border. By 1840, the Irish constituted nearly half of all entering immigrants, and New England found it self heavily foreign born. By 1950, the Irish consisted of one fifth of all foreign born in the originally homogenous region. In 1845, the great potato rot touched off a mass migration. And thus the steadily scaling number of Irish who entered the U.S. between 1820 and 1830 skyrocketed in the 1840s; nearly 2 million came in that decade. The flow persisted increasingly for another five years, as the first immigrants began to earn the means of sending for relatives and friends. The decade after 1855 showed a slowing in the movement, but smaller numbers continued to arrive after the Civil War. Altogether, almost 3.5 million Irishmen entered the U.S. between 1820 and 1880.
German Immigration to Canada
Germans have been part of the Canadian mosaic for hundreds of years. While many migrated individually and separately into the country, most arrived en masse in large immigrant waves from many parts of the world, including the German and provinces, Prussia Russia, Poland Hungary, and other regions, seeking land and opportunities for economic progress.
German auxiliary soldiers were employed in England's North American conflicts with France as early as 1711. The first German settlement, Waldoboro, was established just outside the walls of Fortress Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia in 1745. This was a community of military families, whose men had assisted the English in the siege and capture of this French stronghold. It was abandoned a few years later.
The first permanent settlement began with the arrival of over 2000 citizens of the Holy Roman Empire (the collection of states that would unite to form the German Empire in 1871) and Switzerland, plus some Protestant French, who settled in Lunenburg and Halifax starting in 1750. They were followed over the next thirty-five years by others, including Hessian soldiers who chose to accept land grants in North America after their service and to remain loyal to their British employers rather than to the newly-independent United States. Over the centuries, the descendants of these people gradually integrated into the rest of the growing Maritime population. However, German was still spoken in Lunenburg County at the turn of the twentieth century, and anglicized German family names are very common throughout Nova Scotia to this day.
German auxiliary soldiers were employed in England's North American conflicts with France as early as 1711. The first German settlement, Waldoboro, was established just outside the walls of Fortress Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia in 1745. This was a community of military families, whose men had assisted the English in the siege and capture of this French stronghold. It was abandoned a few years later.
The first permanent settlement began with the arrival of over 2000 citizens of the Holy Roman Empire (the collection of states that would unite to form the German Empire in 1871) and Switzerland, plus some Protestant French, who settled in Lunenburg and Halifax starting in 1750. They were followed over the next thirty-five years by others, including Hessian soldiers who chose to accept land grants in North America after their service and to remain loyal to their British employers rather than to the newly-independent United States. Over the centuries, the descendants of these people gradually integrated into the rest of the growing Maritime population. However, German was still spoken in Lunenburg County at the turn of the twentieth century, and anglicized German family names are very common throughout Nova Scotia to this day.
Central Canada - Ontario and Québec
United Empire Loyalists of German origin emigrating from the United States, along with German soldiers who remained in North America after completing their service, settled in the St. Lawrence River Valley and the Eastern Townships of Québec after the American Revolution. They quickly integrated into the surrounding environment, often changing their names and religion in order to do so. Settlement by such groups in Ontario began as early as 1784. However, the biggest influx into Ontario, which began in 1796, consisted of Pennsylvanian Mennonites, largely because much of the arable land in Pennsylvania was already occupied. Mennonites settled in the Niagara region first, later expanding westward to the area around Waterloo. The settlement of Toronto (then called "York") was partly initiated through the efforts of a small group arriving from Germany via New York State.
Until about 1820, much of the Germanic migration into central Canada had come indirectly through the United States. After the defeat of Napoleon, a new wave of German migration to North America directly from Europe took place. For many people the ultimate destination was still the United States, but others, including craftsmen, tradesmen, and farmers, found their new home in Ontario. Most continued to settle in the same areas as the preceding Mennonites. Many people of German heritage, especially in the Waterloo region, have retained much of their ethnic identity and, in some communities, their language.
Until about 1820, much of the Germanic migration into central Canada had come indirectly through the United States. After the defeat of Napoleon, a new wave of German migration to North America directly from Europe took place. For many people the ultimate destination was still the United States, but others, including craftsmen, tradesmen, and farmers, found their new home in Ontario. Most continued to settle in the same areas as the preceding Mennonites. Many people of German heritage, especially in the Waterloo region, have retained much of their ethnic identity and, in some communities, their language.
Western Canada - Prairie Provinces and British Columbia
Again, the first Germans to enter the Canadian West were soldiers who were employed by the British, in this case to help keep the peace at Red River in 1817. A little-known fact is that a French suburb of Winnipeg, St. Boniface, is named after Winfried Bonifatius, the patron saint of these Catholic German soldiers. The Seine, a small river that flows through this suburb, was originally called German Creek. St. Boniface did not grow into a permanent settlement, as is often the case with many temporary military communities.
200 people made another attempt at German settlement in 1821 from Switzerland and the Alsace region. By 1849, only 2 of these families remained, the rest having emigrated to warmer farming conditions in the United States. The largest Germanic wave into Canada did not originate in Germany or the United States but in Eastern Europe, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Russia. It was launched in 1874 with the arrival of 7000 ethnic German Mennonites from southern Russia. Much of the religious freedom that the Czars had previously granted to the Mennonites, including exemption from service in the Russian army, was now gone, prompting mass exodus. The Canadian Homestead Law of 1872 attracted hundreds of thousands of Europeans to settle the Canadian prairie with the promise of cheap land, available at only $10 for 160 acres. The Mennonites first took advantage of two large tracts of land set aside specifically for their use. Both were south of Winnipeg, with one on the east side of the Red River around Steinbach, and the other on the west side around Gretna and Altona.
Following close behind them in large numbers were Lutheran Germans. Starting in the late 1880s, many of them would first go to work for the already established Mennonites before moving on to their own homesteads or buying land from other settlers who had encountered difficulties in developing their plots into good farmland. These ethnic Germans came from the Black Sea and Volga River regions of Russia, from Volhynia, Galicia, Central Poland, Bukovina, Banat, and Romania. Much smaller numbers also came directly from Germany, the United States, and Ontario. Hundreds of German villages sprang up throughout the West with German names like Neu Elsass, Strassburg, Langenburg, Josephsthal, Landshut, Neudorf, Waldersee, Friedensthal, Bruederheim, and so on. In Saskatchewan alone, Germans made up 14% of the population in 1911.
200 people made another attempt at German settlement in 1821 from Switzerland and the Alsace region. By 1849, only 2 of these families remained, the rest having emigrated to warmer farming conditions in the United States. The largest Germanic wave into Canada did not originate in Germany or the United States but in Eastern Europe, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Russia. It was launched in 1874 with the arrival of 7000 ethnic German Mennonites from southern Russia. Much of the religious freedom that the Czars had previously granted to the Mennonites, including exemption from service in the Russian army, was now gone, prompting mass exodus. The Canadian Homestead Law of 1872 attracted hundreds of thousands of Europeans to settle the Canadian prairie with the promise of cheap land, available at only $10 for 160 acres. The Mennonites first took advantage of two large tracts of land set aside specifically for their use. Both were south of Winnipeg, with one on the east side of the Red River around Steinbach, and the other on the west side around Gretna and Altona.
Following close behind them in large numbers were Lutheran Germans. Starting in the late 1880s, many of them would first go to work for the already established Mennonites before moving on to their own homesteads or buying land from other settlers who had encountered difficulties in developing their plots into good farmland. These ethnic Germans came from the Black Sea and Volga River regions of Russia, from Volhynia, Galicia, Central Poland, Bukovina, Banat, and Romania. Much smaller numbers also came directly from Germany, the United States, and Ontario. Hundreds of German villages sprang up throughout the West with German names like Neu Elsass, Strassburg, Langenburg, Josephsthal, Landshut, Neudorf, Waldersee, Friedensthal, Bruederheim, and so on. In Saskatchewan alone, Germans made up 14% of the population in 1911.
The Twentieth Century
The admission of German-speaking immigrants from Eastern Europe continued into the twentieth century. Reichsdeutsche (Germans from Germany) were barred from entry into Canada from the onset of World War I until 1923. Between 1919 and 1935 some 90,000 German-speaking people arrived in Canada. Over 50% of these were again from eastern and southern Europe and Russia, with the balance directly from Germany. Over 70% were farmers. World War II again interrupted the flow. After the Second World War, massive numbers of immigrants from Germany, Austria and Switzerland entered Canada in the 1950s and 1960s. Many of these people did not ultimately remain in Canada, but the majority did. After English and French, the third largest ethnic group in Canada is German. As it is a highly integrated group in general, it is often invisible, and, according to the 1981 census, the language itself falls behind English, French, and Italian in usage.
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